Science and Technology
विज्ञान तथा प्रविधि · Class 10 · Code SEE
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chapters done
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The syllabus asks for
- Science and scientific method
- scientific investigation
- measurement and units
- project work
Key points
- Science is the organised study of nature through observation and experiment; technology applies scientific knowledge to solve problems.
- The scientific method: problem → observation → hypothesis → experiment → data analysis → conclusion → report.
- In an experiment there is one independent variable, a dependent variable that we measure, and controlled variables kept constant; a control group is used for comparison.
- Accuracy is closeness to the true value; precision is closeness of repeated readings. Taking the mean of several readings reduces random error.
- SI base units: metre (m), kilogram (kg), second (s), kelvin (K), ampere (A), candela (cd), mole (mol). Going to a smaller unit, multiply; to a bigger unit, divide.
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The syllabus asks for
- Taxonomy and classification
- five kingdoms
- characteristics of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
Key points
- Taxonomy is the identification, naming and classification of organisms. Linnaeus is the father of taxonomy; Whittaker proposed five kingdoms in 1969.
- The hierarchy is Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species; the species is the basic unit.
- Binomial nomenclature: two Latin names, genus (capital) then species (small letter), in italics or underlined.
- Monera: prokaryotic, unicellular (bacteria, cyanobacteria); binary fission.
- Protista: unicellular eukaryotes (Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena).
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The syllabus asks for
- Types of bees
- life cycle
- colony and division of labour
- bee keeping and products
Key points
- Honey bees belong to genus Apis, class Insecta, order Hymenoptera. Wild species: A. dorsata, A. laboriosa, A. florea; domesticated: A. cerana, A. mellifera.
- The colony has three castes: one queen (fertile female), thousands of workers (sterile females) and drones (males).
- Life cycle: egg → larva → pupa → adult (complete metamorphosis). Egg-to-adult time: queen 16 days, worker 21 days, drone 24 days.
- Fertilised eggs give queens and workers (diet decides which); unfertilised eggs give drones (parthenogenesis).
- Division of labour among workers by age: cleaner, nurse, house bee (comb builder), guard, forager. Bees communicate by round and waggle dances.
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The syllabus asks for
- Mendel's experiments and laws
- chromosomes and genes
- sex determination
- genetic disorders
Key points
- Heredity is the passing of characters from parents to offspring through genes. Mendel, the father of genetics, worked with pea plants and discovered the laws of inheritance.
- Monohybrid cross Tt × Tt gives phenotypic ratio 3 : 1 and genotypic ratio 1 : 2 : 1; a test cross with the recessive parent shows whether a dominant plant is pure.
- Dihybrid cross RrYy × RrYy gives 9 : 3 : 3 : 1.
- Laws: dominance, segregation (purity of gametes), independent assortment.
- Cell → nucleus → chromosome → DNA → gene. Humans have 46 chromosomes (22 pairs autosomes + XX or XY). DNA is a double helix with A–T and C–G pairing.
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The syllabus asks for
- Nervous and endocrine systems
- reproduction
- circulation
- excretion
- homeostasis
Key points
- The CNS (brain + spinal cord) and the PNS (nerves) coordinate quickly using electrical impulses; the endocrine glands coordinate slowly using hormones.
- Neuron: dendrites, cell body, axon, myelin sheath. Reflex arc: receptor → sensory neuron → spinal cord → motor neuron → effector.
- Brain: cerebrum (thinking), cerebellum (balance), medulla (involuntary actions). Pituitary is the master gland; thyroxine needs iodine; insulin controls blood sugar.
- Human reproduction: sperm and egg meet in the fallopian tube; the zygote implants in the uterus; gestation about 280 days. Menstrual cycle 28 days, ovulation about day 14.
- Blood = plasma + RBC (oxygen) + WBC (defence) + platelets (clotting). Blood groups A, B, AB, O.
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The syllabus asks for
- Ecosystem
- environmental pollution
- climate change
- waste management
- conservation
Key points
- An ecosystem is the living (producers, consumers, decomposers) and non-living parts of a place interacting. Energy flows in one direction (10% passes to the next level); matter is recycled in carbon, nitrogen and water cycles.
- Food chains join to form a food web: producer → herbivore → carnivore → top carnivore.
- Air pollutants: CO, CO₂, SO₂, NOₓ, particles, CFCs; water pollution from sewage, chemicals and fertilisers (eutrophication); soil pollution from plastic and agrochemicals; noise above 85 dB harms hearing.
- Greenhouse gases (CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, CFCs) trap heat. Global warming melts glaciers, raises sea level and changes rainfall. CFCs thin the ozone layer, allowing more UV rays; the Montreal Protocol controls them.
- Waste is biodegradable or non-biodegradable. Follow the 3 Rs (reduce, reuse, recycle) and segregate at source; compost, biogas and sanitary landfill are the main treatments.
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The syllabus asks for
- Newton's laws
- momentum
- gravitation
- weight and mass
- free fall
Key points
- Force is a push or a pull; unit newton. Net force zero means the forces are balanced.
- Newton's first law: a body keeps its state of rest or uniform motion unless an unbalanced force acts. Inertia depends on mass.
- Newton's second law: F = ma; also F = dfracΔ pt. 1 N gives 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m s⁻².
- Newton's third law: action and reaction are equal and opposite and act on different bodies.
- Momentum p = mv (kg m s⁻¹); impulse Ft = mv - mu. Without external force, m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2.
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The syllabus asks for
- Pressure in solids, liquids and gases
- Pascal's law
- atmospheric pressure
- Archimedes and floatation
Key points
- Pressure = thrust ÷ area: P = F/A; unit pascal (1 Pa = 1 N m⁻²). Small area gives high pressure.
- Liquid pressure: P = hρ g; it increases with depth and acts equally in all directions at a point.
- Pascal's law: pressure on an enclosed fluid is transmitted equally in all directions. Hydraulic machine: F = f (A/a).
- Atmospheric pressure at sea level = 76 cm Hg = 1.013×10^5 Pa; it decreases with altitude. A barometer measures it.
- Archimedes' principle: upthrust = weight of fluid displaced = Vρ g; apparent weight = weight − upthrust.
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The syllabus asks for
- Thermal expansion
- specific heat capacity
- latent heat
- heat transfer
Key points
- Heat is energy (joule); temperature tells hotness. Heat flows from higher to lower temperature. T(K) = t(°C) + 273.
- Linear expansion: Δ L = α L0 Δ T. Bimetallic strips, rail gaps and tyre-fitting use expansion.
- Water contracts from 0 °C to 4 °C and has maximum density at 4 °C; this saves aquatic life in frozen lakes.
- Specific heat capacity c: heat to raise 1 kg by 1 °C; Q = mcΔ T (water c = 4200 J kg⁻¹ °C⁻¹). Heat lost = heat gained in mixing.
- Latent heat: Q = mL with no change in temperature. Lf(ice) = 3.36×10^5 J kg⁻¹, Lv(water) = 2.26×10^6 J kg⁻¹.
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The syllabus asks for
- Wave motion
- sound
- reflection and refraction of light
- lenses
- optical instruments
Key points
- A wave transfers energy without transferring matter. Transverse: vibration ⟂ wave direction; longitudinal: vibration ∥ wave direction. v = fλ, T = 1/f.
- Sound is a longitudinal mechanical wave; cannot travel in a vacuum; fastest in solids. Audible range 20 Hz–20 kHz. Echo needs at least 17 m: d = vt/2.
- Loudness depends on amplitude, pitch on frequency, quality on waveform.
- Reflection: ∠ i = ∠ r. Mirror formula dfrac1f = dfrac1u + dfrac1v, f = R/2, m = v/u.
- Refraction: dfracsin isin r = n = dfraccv; total internal reflection when light goes dense → rare with i > C, where sin C = 1/n.
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The syllabus asks for
- Ohm's law
- resistance
- electrical power
- magnetic effect of current
- electromagnetic induction
- generator and transformer
Key points
- I = Q/t (A); V = work per unit charge (V). Ohm's law: V = IR at constant temperature.
- R = ρ l/A. Series: Rs = R1 + R2 + cdots; parallel: dfrac1Rp = dfrac1R1 + dfrac1R2 + cdots.
- Power P = VI = I^2R = V^2/R; energy W = Pt; 1 kWh = 3.6×10⁶ J. Heat H = I^2Rt. A fuse breaks an overloaded circuit.
- A current produces a magnetic field (Oersted). Right-hand grip rule gives its direction; a solenoid with an iron core is an electromagnet.
- A conductor carrying current in a magnetic field feels a force (Fleming's left-hand rule). The DC motor uses it and a split-ring commutator.
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The syllabus asks for
- Stars, galaxies, solar system
- formation of the universe
- space exploration
Key points
- The universe is everything. 1 light year = 9.46×10^12 km (distance); 1 AU = 1.5×10^8 km. Sunlight takes 8 min 20 s to reach the Earth.
- A star is a ball of hot gas shining by nuclear fusion of hydrogen. Life cycle: nebula → protostar → main sequence → red giant → white dwarf (Sun-like) or supernova → neutron star / black hole (massive).
- A galaxy is a system of billions of stars. The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy. Constellations are patterns of stars; the Pole Star shows north.
- The solar system has eight planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars (terrestrial), Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune (giants), plus dwarf planets, asteroids, comets and meteors. T^2 = r^3 (years, AU).
- Big Bang: the universe began about 13.8 billion years ago and is still expanding. Evidence: red shift of galaxies, cosmic microwave background, abundance of H and He.
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The syllabus asks for
- Computer systems
- internet and networks
- e-commerce
- ICT in daily life
- ethics
Key points
- A computer takes input, processes data using the CPU (ALU + CU) and memory, and gives output. Hardware is physical; software is programs (system, utility, application).
- RAM is volatile; ROM is permanent. 1 byte = 8 bits; 1 KB = 1024 B; 1 MB = 1024 KB; 1 GB = 1024 MB. Computers use the binary system.
- A network connects computers: LAN, MAN, WAN; topologies include star, bus and ring.
- The internet is a network of networks; the WWW is a service on it. Important terms: ISP, IP address, URL, browser, search engine, e-mail, bandwidth.
- Safe use: antivirus, firewall, strong passwords; beware of phishing, hacking and viruses.
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The syllabus asks for
- Periodic table
- periodic properties
- groups and periods
Key points
- Dobereiner (triads), Newlands (octaves) and Mendeleev (periodic law by atomic mass) were early attempts; Moseley's modern periodic law uses atomic number.
- The modern table has 18 groups and 7 periods; blocks are s, p, d and f.
- Period number = number of shells; group number (1, 2) = valence electrons; groups 13 to 18: valence electrons + 10.
- Valency = valence electrons (1 to 3) or 8 − valence electrons (4 to 7); noble gases are 0.
- Down a group: atomic size increases; ionisation energy and electronegativity decrease; metallic character increases.
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The syllabus asks for
- Types of reactions
- balancing equations
- rate of reaction
- acids, bases and salts
Key points
- A chemical reaction forms new substances; it is shown by a balanced equation (reactants → products).
- Types: combination, decomposition, displacement, double displacement, exothermic/endothermic and redox.
- Mass is conserved: balance equations by writing coefficients, never by changing subscripts.
- Rate of reaction increases with concentration, surface area, temperature and a catalyst.
- Acids give H⁺, bases (alkalis) give OH⁻; pH below 7 is acidic, 7 is neutral, above 7 is basic.
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The syllabus asks for
- Properties of gases
- Boyle's and Charles' laws
- preparation of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide
Key points
- Gas particles are far apart and move fast; gases have no fixed shape or volume, are compressible and exert pressure.
- Temperature in gas laws must be in kelvin: T = t + 273.
- Boyle's law (constant T): P1V1 = P2V2.
- Charles' law (constant P): V1/T1 = V2/T2.
- Combined: dfracP1V1T1 = dfracP2V2T2; STP is 273 K and 760 mm Hg.
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The syllabus asks for
- Physical and chemical properties
- reactivity series
- extraction
- corrosion
Key points
- Metals are lustrous, malleable, ductile and conduct heat and electricity; non-metals are dull, brittle and poor conductors (graphite and diamond are exceptions).
- Metal oxides are basic; non-metal oxides are acidic; Al₂O₃ and ZnO are amphoteric.
- Reactivity series: K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Pb, H, Cu, Hg, Ag, Au. A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive one; only metals above H liberate H₂ from dilute acids.
- Ores of Fe: haematite and magnetite; Al: bauxite; Cu: copper pyrite.
- Steps: crushing, concentration, calcination/roasting, reduction, refining. Reactive metals are extracted by electrolysis; middle metals by carbon reduction.
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The syllabus asks for
- Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes
- homologous series
- alcohols
- carboxylic acids
Key points
- Carbon is tetravalent and shows catenation; hydrocarbons contain only C and H.
- Alkanes CₙH₂ₙ₊₂ (single bonds, substitution); alkenes CₙH₂ₙ (C=C, addition and polymerisation); alkynes CₙH₂ₙ₋₂ (C≡C, addition).
- Unsaturated hydrocarbons decolourise bromine water and Baeyer's reagent; alkanes do not.
- A homologous series has the same functional group and general formula, and members differ by –CH₂– (14 u).
- Alcohols CₙH₂ₙ₊₁OH (–OH): ethanol is made by fermentation of sugar; it reacts with Na to give H₂; oxidises to ethanoic acid; methanol is poisonous.
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The syllabus asks for
- Soaps and detergents
- fertilisers
- cement
- glass
- plastics and polymers
Key points
- Soap is the sodium or potassium salt of a fatty acid, made by saponification of oil or fat with alkali; glycerol is a by-product. It cleans by forming micelles around grease.
- Soap forms scum with hard water; detergents (synthetic) do not, but non-biodegradable ones pollute water.
- Fertilisers supply N, P and K. Urea has 46 % N. Excess use causes soil damage and eutrophication.
- Cement is made by heating limestone and clay at 1400 to 1500 °C and grinding the clinker with 2 to 3 % gypsum; mortar, concrete and RCC are its main products.
- Glass is an amorphous solid made by fusing sand (SiO₂), soda ash (Na₂CO₃) and limestone (CaCO₃) at about 1500 °C; it is annealed by slow cooling.
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Objective questions
Science and Technology: Unit-wise Objective Question Bank
Subjective questions
Science and Technology: Unit-wise Subjective Question Bank
Model sets and predicted questions
Science and Technology: Model Question Sets and Predicted Questions
Exam guide
The SEE Examination: Pattern, Grid and Strategy
The paper
SEE, 2 hr 30 min, FM 75 written (+25 internal/practical)
| Section | Questions | Marks each | Total |
|---|---|---|---|
| Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy and ICT | — | — | — |