Chemistry
रसायन विज्ञान · CEE · MECEE-BL Medical Entrance
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- Physical Chemistry
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The syllabus asks for
- Atoms, molecules, valency, radicals; relative atomic and molecular mass; the atomic mass unit
- Chemical equations, empirical and molecular formulae, percentage composition
- Dalton's atomic theory, the laws of stoichiometry and Avogadro's law
- The mole concept, limiting reactant and percentage yield
Key points
- 1 u = 1/12 of the mass of a ¹²C atom = 1.66 × 10⁻²⁴ g; relative atomic and molecular masses are unitless ratios; the tabulated atomic mass is an isotope-weighted average.
- Formulae come from valencies by criss-cross; learn the radicals with their charges, and remember Hg₂²⁺ (Hg₂Cl₂), S₂O₃²⁻ and Cr₂O₇²⁻.
- Percentage of an element = (atoms × A_r)/M × 100; urea is 46.7 % N, CuSO₄·5H₂O is 36.1 % water.
- Empirical formula: % → ÷ A_r → ÷ smallest → whole numbers; molecular formula = n × empirical formula, with M = 2 × VD.
- Lavoisier (mass), Proust (definite), Dalton (multiple), Richter (reciprocal), Gay-Lussac (gas volumes), Avogadro (equal volumes, equal molecules).
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The syllabus asks for
- Rutherford's and Bohr's atomic models; the spectrum of hydrogen
- de Broglie's equation and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle
- Orbitals and quantum numbers; the Aufbau principle, Pauli's exclusion principle and Hund's rule; electronic configuration
Key points
- Rutherford: most of the atom is empty; positive charge and mass sit in a nucleus about 10⁻¹⁵ m across. The model fails on stability and on line spectra.
- Bohr: stationary orbits with mvr = nh/2π; photons only on jumps, Δ E = hν. For one-electron species r ∝ n^2/Z, v ∝ Z/n, E = -13.6 Z^2/n^2 eV.
- Hydrogen lines obey 1/λ = RH(1/n1^2 - 1/n2^2): Lyman (UV), Balmer (visible), Paschen, Brackett, Pfund (IR). A sample falling from level n gives n(n-1)/2 lines.
- de Broglie: λ = h/mv; significant only for tiny masses; 2π r = nλ gives Bohr's rule.
- Heisenberg: Δ x·Δ p ≥ h/4π, so orbits give way to orbitals (probability regions).
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The syllabus asks for
- Modern periodic law and table; s, p, d and f blocks; isoelectronic species
- Periodic trends: atomic and ionic size, ionization energy, electronegativity, electron affinity and metallic character
Key points
- Modern periodic law: properties are periodic functions of atomic number; periodicity comes from the recurrence of similar outer configurations.
- 7 periods (2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32, 32 elements) and 18 groups; s, p, d and f blocks by the subshell that takes the last electron; He is s-block but sits in group 18.
- Group from configuration: s-block ns electrons, p-block 10 + ns + np, d-block ns + (n − 1)d.
- Isoelectronic species share an electron count; their radius falls as Z rises.
- Across a period Z_eff rises: size falls; IE, EA and electronegativity rise; metallic character and basic character of oxides fall. Down a group the reverse.
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The syllabus asks for
- Electronic theory of valency; ionic, covalent and coordinate bonds; Lewis structures of s- and p-block compounds
- VSEPR theory and the shapes of simple molecules; valence bond theory, sigma and pi bonds, hybridization
- Dipole moment, ionic character of covalent bonds and bond length
- Hydrogen bonding, metallic bonding and van der Waals forces
Key points
- Atoms bond to reach a noble-gas configuration: ionic (transfer), covalent (sharing), coordinate (a pair donated by one atom — NH₄⁺, H₃O⁺, H₃N→BF₃). The octet rule fails for BF₃, PCl₅, SF₆, NO and xenon fluorides.
- Formal charge = V − L − B/2; the best Lewis structure minimises formal charges.
- VSEPR: shape from the steric number SN = ½(V + M − c + a); lp–lp > lp–bp > bp–bp squeezes angles: CH₄ 109.5° > NH₃ 107° > H₂O 104.5°.
- Lone pairs in a trigonal bipyramid go equatorial: SF₄ see-saw, ClF₃ T-shaped, XeF₂ linear; XeF₄ is square planar.
- σ bonds come from head-on overlap, π bonds from sideways overlap; double = σ + π, triple = σ + 2π. Hybridisation sp, sp², sp³, sp³d, sp³d², sp³d³ for SN 2–7; more s character, shorter and stronger bond.
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The syllabus asks for
- Classical and electronic concepts of oxidation and reduction; oxidation number
- Balancing redox equations by the oxidation-number and ion-electron methods; applications
Key points
- Classical: oxidation = addition of O or an electronegative element, removal of H or an electropositive element; reduction the reverse.
- Electronic: oxidation = loss of electrons, reduction = gain; the oxidant is reduced and the reductant oxidised; both always occur together.
- Oxidation number rules: free element 0; F −1; O −2 except peroxides (−1), superoxides (−½) and OF₂ (+2); H +1 except metal hydrides (−1); the sum equals the charge.
- Watch the traps: Fe₃O₄ +8/3, S₄O₆²⁻ +2.5, CrO₅ and H₂S₂O₈ +6 (peroxide links), OsO₄ +8, NH₄NO₃ −3 and +5.
- Highest oxidation state → only an oxidant; lowest → only a reductant; intermediate → both, and able to disproportionate (H₂O₂, Cl₂ in alkali, Cu⁺, HNO₂).
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The syllabus asks for
- Gases: kinetic theory, the gas laws, the ideal and combined gas equations, deviation of real gases
- Liquids: vapour pressure, boiling point, surface tension, viscosity, liquid crystals, solubility and solubility curves
- Solids: crystalline and amorphous solids; efflorescent, deliquescent and hygroscopic substances; water of crystallization
- The unit cell, the seven crystal systems and the fourteen Bravais lattices; types of crystalline solid by bonding
Key points
- Kinetic theory: random elastic motion, no attractions, negligible molecular volume; KE = (3/2)RT per mole for every gas; urms = √3RT/M and ump : uav : urms = 1 : 1.128 : 1.224.
- Boyle, Charles, pressure and Avogadro laws combine into PV = nRT (R = 8.314 J or 0.0821 L atm mol⁻¹ K⁻¹); always use kelvin.
- Dalton: pi = xiP; Graham: rate ∝ 1/√M (lighter gases diffuse faster; time ∝ √M).
- Real gases: Z = PV/nRT; van der Waals a (attraction) and b (excluded volume); ideal behaviour at low P and high T; large a means easy liquefaction.
- Vapour pressure depends only on the liquid and T; boiling occurs when VP = external pressure. Surface tension (N m⁻¹) and liquid viscosity (Pa s) fall as T rises.
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The syllabus asks for
- Physical and chemical equilibrium; the law of mass action; Kc, Kp, the reaction quotient and the Kp–Kc relation
- Le Chatelier's principle and its applications
- Arrhenius, Brønsted–Lowry and Lewis acids and bases; Ostwald's dilution law
- Ionic product of water, pH, pOH, pKa and pKb; common-ion effect; solubility product
- Acidic and basic buffers; types of salts and their hydrolysis
Key points
- At dynamic equilibrium the forward and reverse rates are equal and concentrations are constant, but both reactions continue; a catalyst only shortens the time taken to get there.
- Kc and Kp take products over reactants with each concentration raised to its coefficient; pure solids and pure liquids are omitted because their concentrations are constant.
- Kp = Kc(RT)^Δ n. When Δ n = 0 the two are equal and both are dimensionless; when Δ n = -2, Kc carries L² mol⁻² and Kp atm⁻².
- Q is the same ratio at any moment: Q < K shifts forward, Q > K shifts backward. Only temperature changes K; pressure shifts the position only if Δ n ≠ 0.
- Le Chatelier: added reactant, removed product, higher pressure (towards fewer gas moles) and lower temperature (for an exothermic reaction) all push the equilibrium forward. Haber, contact and Ostwald each use a compromise temperature of roughly 700–800 K for rate, with pressure chosen from Δ n.
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The syllabus asks for
- Equivalent weight; concentration as percentage, g/L, normality, molarity, molality, formality, ppm, ppb and mole fraction
- Primary and secondary standards; the law of equivalence and the normality equation
Key points
- Volumetric analysis measures the volume of a standard solution needed to react completely with a measured volume of analyte; the end point is the indicator's approximation to the equivalence point.
- Equivalent weight E = M/n; the n-factor is the basicity of an acid, the acidity of a base, the cation charge of a salt, or the electron change of an oxidant or reductant.
- KMnO₄ has three equivalent weights because it is reduced to Mn²⁺ (n = 5), MnO₂ (n = 3) or MnO₄²⁻ (n = 1); K₂Cr₂O₇ is always n = 6.
- Molarity is per litre of solution and changes with temperature; molality is per kilogram of solvent and does not. Normality = molarity × n-factor.
- M = 10 × %w/w × d / MB is the only conversion that needs the density; ppm and ppb are mass ratios, and mole fractions sum to 1.
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The syllabus asks for
- Rate of reaction, rate expressions, the rate constant and its units; order and molecularity
- Integrated rate laws and half-lives of zero- and first-order reactions
- Collision theory, activation and threshold energy, the activated complex; factors affecting rate; homogeneous, heterogeneous and enzyme catalysis
Key points
- Rate is positive: for a reactant rate = -(1/a)d[R]/dt; the coefficient of every species must be included. Average rate is a chord, instantaneous rate a tangent.
- The rate law is experimental; order is the sum of the exponents and may be 0, fractional or negative, while molecularity is a theoretical whole number for one step.
- Units of k: mol L⁻¹ s⁻¹ (0), s⁻¹ (1), L mol⁻¹ s⁻¹ (2), L² mol⁻² s⁻¹ (3).
- Zero order: [A] = [A]0 - kt, t1/2 = [A]0/2k (doubles when [A]0 doubles), and the reaction finishes at [A]0/k.
- First order: ln([A]0/[A]) = kt, [A] = [A]0e^-kt, t1/2 = 0.693/k — independent of [A]0; n half-lives leave (1/2)^n.
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The syllabus asks for
- Electrolytic cells and the qualitative and quantitative laws of electrolysis
- Standard electrode potential, the standard hydrogen and calomel electrodes, the electrochemical series and its uses
- Galvanic cells and their standard emf; primary, secondary and hydrogen–oxygen fuel cells
Key points
- An electrolytic cell uses electrical energy to drive a non-spontaneous reaction; the anode is positive and the cathode negative, but oxidation is at the anode and reduction at the cathode in every cell.
- Products of electrolysis follow preferential discharge: the ion with the higher E^° is reduced at the cathode; with inert electrodes in water, O₂ appears at the anode unless a concentrated halide gives Cl₂, Br₂ or I₂.
- Faraday's first law: m = ZIt with Z = E/96 500; second law: m1/m2 = E1/E2, and one faraday deposits one gram equivalent.
- E^° is a reduction potential measured against the SHE (0.00 V; 1 M H⁺, 1 atm H₂, 298 K, Pt black); the calomel electrode is a portable secondary reference at about 0.24 V.
- The electrochemical series gives reactivity, displacement, cell emf and electrolysis products; higher E^° gains electrons, lower E^° loses them.
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The syllabus asks for
- Systems and surroundings; state functions; internal energy; intensive and extensive properties; the first law and enthalpy
- Enthalpies of reaction, formation, combustion, neutralization, solution, fusion and vaporization; Laplace's and Hess's laws
- Spontaneity, entropy and the second law; Gibbs free energy and its relation to the equilibrium constant
Key points
- A system is open, closed or isolated; only an isolated system has Δ U = 0 always. U, H, S and G are state functions; q and w are path functions whose sum alone is fixed.
- Extensive properties scale with amount (mass, U, H, S, G); intensive ones do not (T, P, density, molar enthalpy).
- First law (IUPAC): Δ U = q + w, with q positive into the system and w = -PΔ V positive when work is done on it. An expanding gas has negative work.
- H = U + PV; Δ H = qp at constant pressure and Δ U = qv at constant volume; Δ H = Δ U + Δ ng RT.
- Δ Hf^° is zero only for an element in its standard state; Δ H^°rxn is products minus reactants.
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The syllabus asks for
- Radioactivity and types of nuclear reaction
- Radioisotopes and radiocarbon dating
Key points
- Write the two bookkeeping integers (A, Z) honestly and every nuclear equation, including series staircases of a dozen steps, falls into place.
- Stability is geography: inside the neutron-bending belt (magic addresses preferred) nuclei endure; outside, β-decays walk them home and the heavies shed α-particles.
- Bombardment extends the map: artificial transmutation and induced radioactivity brew the isotopes that medicine and industry now order by catalogue.
- Carbon-14 is the belt's most famous emigrant: made in the sky, eaten by everything alive, and read back as a 50 000-year clock.
- Inorganic Chemistry
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The syllabus asks for
- Atomic, molecular and nascent hydrogen; isotopes of hydrogen; heavy water; types of oxides
- Ozone: preparation, structure and tests; depletion of the ozone layer
- Ammonia, phosphine and nitric acid
- Chlorine, bromine and iodine; HCl, HBr and HI
- Allotropes of carbon and carbon monoxide; hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid
Key points
- Hydrogen's personas scale in reducing violence (H₂ < [H] < atomic H); its isotopes give heavy water (a moderator) and tritium (a tracer).
- Oxides sort by character — acidic, basic, amphoteric, neutral, peroxide, superoxide, mixed — and ozone is oxygen's bent, resonating, oxidizing allotrope, whose stratospheric veil CFC chemistry taught us to defend.
- Ammonia is base and ligand in one lone pair; phosphine its feebler, fouler sibling; nitric acid an oxidizing acid whose product gas advertises its concentration.
- Halogens weaken downwards as oxidants while their hydrides strengthen as acids and reductants; HF alone is weak — and alone eats glass.
- Carbon reinvents itself from diamond to graphene; CO poisons quietly and refines metals; the sulphur trio H₂S/SO₂/H₂SO₄ escalates from analytical precipitant to the dehydrating, oxidizing king of chemicals.
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The syllabus asks for
- Metallurgical principles: ores, gangue, flux, slag, concentration, calcination, roasting, smelting, bessemerization, aluminothermy, electrolytic reduction, poling, electro-refining and zone refining
- Alkali and alkaline-earth metals; sodium, sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate
- 3d transition metals; shapes of complex ions; crystal field theory of octahedral complexes
- Copper, zinc, mercury, silver and iron: occurrence, extraction and properties; blue vitriol, white vitriol, calomel and corrosive sublimate
- Steel by the basic oxygen and open-hearth processes; corrosion of iron
Key points
- Ores are concentrated (flotation owns the sulphides), converted to oxides (calcination without air, roasting with it), then reduced by the cheapest agent the Ellingham ladder allows — carbon for the middle class, electricity for the aristocrats, self-reduction for copper and mercury.
- Refining polishes with green poles, electric baths and moving molten zones; impurities are sorted by the same electrochemical series that runs the cells.
- The s-block supplies sodium's industrial trio (metal, hydroxide, carbonate) by Downs, chlor-alkali and Solvay routes, and calcium's lime cycle closes on itself.
- Transition metals wear complexes whose colours, spins and geometries crystal-field splitting predicts — from tetraammine blue to chemotherapy's cisplatin.
- Iron's blast furnace and the two steel converters turn carbon content into a dial (pig ≫ cast > steel > wrought), while rust — a wet electrochemical cell — is fought by smarter neighbours: zinc above all.
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The syllabus asks for
- Micro- and macronutrients; biological roles of sodium, potassium, magnesium, zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel, iron, chromium and calcium
- The sodium–potassium pump and the sodium–glucose pump
- Toxicity of iron, arsenic, mercury, lead and cadmium
Key points
- Macro- and microminerals differ in required amount, not in importance; chemical form and dose decide benefit or harm.
- Na⁺ dominates extracellular fluid, K⁺ dominates cytosol, Mg²⁺ partners ATP and chlorophyll, and Ca²⁺ combines a structural role in bone with rapid signalling roles.
- Zn²⁺ is a redox-inert catalytic/structural ion; Fe and Cu handle oxygen and electrons but must be protein-bound; cobalt reaches human metabolism through microbially made vitamin B₁₂.
- Nickel has established roles in plants and microbes, while chromium(III)'s supposed essential role in humans remains unproved; chromium(VI) is an important carcinogen.
- Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase is the primary-active 3-out/2-in pump. SGLTs spend the Na⁺ gradient, not ATP directly, to import glucose.
- Organic Chemistry
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The syllabus asks for
- Tetravalency and catenation of carbon; classification of organic compounds; alkyl and aryl groups; functional groups and homologous series
- IUPAC nomenclature of aliphatic compounds; isomerism
- Homolytic and heterolytic fission; electrophiles, nucleophiles, carbocations, carbanions and free radicals; inductive and resonance effects
Key points
- Carbon's tetravalency, strong self-linking and multiple bonding create an enormous set of stable molecular architectures.
- Functional groups and homologous series convert that diversity into learnable families; alkyl, aryl and benzyl must be distinguished by where the free valence lies.
- Degree of unsaturation counts rings plus π bonds and is the fastest check before drawing or naming structures.
- IUPAC names are built by seniority, parent selection, low-locant numbering and alphabetical assembly.
- Structural isomers differ in connectivity; stereoisomers keep connectivity but differ in arrangement. E/Z, enantiomers, diastereomers, racemates and meso forms each answer a different question.
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The syllabus asks for
- Cracking, pyrolysis and reforming; gasoline quality, octane and cetane numbers, gasoline additives
- Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes: isomerism, nomenclature and preparation; properties of ethane; addition reactions of alkenes and alkynes; acidity of alkynes
- Aromaticity and resonance; preparation and properties of benzene
Key points
- Refineries crack long chains, pyrolyse feedstocks to light alkenes and reform straight chains into branched/aromatic molecules that engines and polymer plants actually want.
- Octane rewards resistance to autoignition; cetane rewards prompt compression ignition. Molecular shape therefore wins opposite prizes in the two fuels.
- Alkanes are strong-σ, nonpolar and slow to react except by combustion and radical pathways; ethane exemplifies combustion, UV substitution and cracking.
- Alkenes spend a π bond in addition reactions. Carbocation stability explains Markovnikov orientation, while peroxide changes HBr addition into a radical anti-Markovnikov process.
- Alkynes can be stopped at a cis- or trans-alkene by choosing the reduction system; their terminal C–H is acidic because an sp conjugate base is comparatively stable.
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The syllabus asks for
- Monohaloalkanes: nomenclature, isomerism, preparation and properties; SN1 and SN2 mechanisms
- Chloroform and chlorobenzene
- Monohydric alcohols: preparation and properties; oxo process, hydroboration–oxidation and fermentation; types of ethanol
- Phenol: preparation and properties
- Ethers: Williamson's synthesis and the properties of diethyl ether
Key points
- Monohaloalkanes react through a mechanistic fork: unhindered substrates invite concerted SN2 backside attack, while cation-stabilizing substrates ionize in SN1; bases and heat open the elimination side-road.
- The leaving-group order RI > RBr > RCl >> RF and the aqueous/alcoholic KOH distinction settle a large share of conversion questions.
- Chloroform's examination identity is haloform preparation, phosgene formation in air and dichlorocarbene reactions; chlorobenzene's is a strong aryl C–Cl bond that refuses ordinary substitution until Dow conditions.
- Alcohols combine hydrogen bonding with four reaction exits — alkoxide formation, substitution, dehydration and oxidation — whose class orders identify 1°, 2° and 3° alcohols.
- Hydroboration–oxidation and hydration are regiochemical opposites, the oxo process adds a carbon before reduction, and fermentation is enzyme-limited ethanol production.
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The syllabus asks for
- Aliphatic aldehydes and ketones: nomenclature, preparation and reactions; benzaldehyde
- Monocarboxylic acids: preparation and properties
- Acid halides, anhydrides, amides and esters: preparation, properties and relative reactivity
Key points
- Aldehydes and ketones are distinguished by oxidation behaviour, not by 2,4-DNP: aldehydes reduce Tollens' reagent; ordinary ketones do not.
- Controlled stopping power is the theme of preparation — PCC stops at aldehyde, poisoned Pd stops Rosenmund at aldehyde, and soft organometallics stop at ketone.
- Enolate chemistry at the α-carbon gives aldol products and the haloform reaction; blocking α-H switches an aldehyde to Cannizzaro disproportionation.
- Benzaldehyde combines an aldehyde's Tollens response with aromatic specialities: no Fehling reaction, Cannizzaro, benzoin and Perkin condensations.
- Carboxylic acids owe their acidity and high boiling points to carboxylate resonance and hydrogen-bonded dimers; substituent effects and HVZ chemistry operate through that same functional group.
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The syllabus asks for
- Nitroalkanes and nitrobenzene
- Amines: classification, preparation of primary amines, basicity, Hofmann's separation; aniline
- Organolithium, organocopper and organocadmium compounds; the Grignard reagent
Key points
- The nitro group withdraws electrons, acidifies an α-C–H and can be reduced all the way to an amine or stopped/dimerized at intermediate oxidation levels by choosing the medium.
- Nitrobenzene's ring is deactivated and meta-directing, in complete contrast to the aniline produced from it.
- Primary-amine synthesis is an exercise in carbon bookkeeping: nitrile reduction extends, Hofmann degradation shortens, and Gabriel protects nitrogen from over-alkylation.
- Aqueous basicity balances alkyl donation against solvation; resonance makes aniline and especially p-nitroaniline feeble bases.
- Hoffmann and Hinsberg separations exploit the presence or absence of N–H bonds; nitrous acid and the carbylamine reaction identify amine class in test tubes.
- Applied Chemistry
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The syllabus asks for
- The chemical industry: stages of production, economics and plant management, batch and continuous processing, environmental effects and their control
- Cement, paper and pulp; nitric acid (Ostwald), ammonia (Haber), sulphuric acid (contact), caustic soda (diaphragm cell), sodium carbonate (Solvay) and urea
- Uses of the common non-metals, metals, inorganic compounds and organic compounds
- Polymers, dyes, drugs, pesticides and fertilizers; colloids, osmotic pressure and buffers in daily life; medical and industrial uses of radioisotopes
Key points
- A viable process joins reaction chemistry to separation, recycle, energy, quality and waste systems; batch suits variety, continuous suits volume.
- Cement clinker minerals and gypsum explain strength and setting, while limestone calcination makes process CO₂ unavoidable without substitution/capture.
- Kraft pulping's chemical-recovery loop is why a paper mill can be both a fibre factory and a power station.
- Haber, Ostwald, Contact, chlor-alkali, Solvay and urea each compress to one catalyst/reagent, one equilibrium trick and one product-separation trick.
- Uses of common substances are predictable from properties such as conductivity, oxide passivation, alkalinity, π reactivity and hydrogen bonding.
- Analytical Chemistry
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The syllabus asks for
- Tests for acid and basic radicals; tests for unsaturation and functional groups; distinction tests; Lassaigne's test; tests for fats, proteins and carbohydrates
- Separation techniques: filtration, sublimation, evaporation, precipitation, crystallization, distillation, paper chromatography and atmolysis
- Acid–base, redox (permanganometric, iodometric and iodimetric) and complexometric titrations; choice of indicator
Key points
- Anion analysis begins with acid-evolved gases and ends with precipitate confirmations whose acid/ammonia solubilities separate look-alikes.
- Cation groups are solubility cliffs climbed in order; group reagents work because pH controls S²⁻, OH⁻ and CO₃²⁻ availability.
- Organic tests are the functional-group reactions of Chapters 17–20 read backwards from product to structure, with benzene and phenol as the standing bromine-test traps.
- Lassaigne's fusion converts covalent N, S and halogens into CN⁻, S²⁻ and X⁻ so inorganic colour chemistry can see them.
- Molisch, Benedict, iodine, Biuret, ninhydrin and grease-spot tests identify the three great food classes by their reactive groups.
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The paper
3 hours, 200 single-best-answer MCQs with four options, 200 marks, 0.25 deducted per wrong answer, merit list from the 50th percentile
| Section | Questions | Marks each | Total |
|---|---|---|---|
| Zoology | 40 | 1 | 40 |
| Botany | 40 | 1 | 40 |
| Chemistry | 50 | 1 | 50 |
| Physics | 50 | 1 | 50 |
| Mental Agility Test | 20 | 1 | 20 |
Where the questions are
Questions each part carries in the paper, out of 50. Area totals follow the official syllabus; where single chapters are shown, the split between them is the NEBians estimate.
- Physical Chemistry17 Qs
- Organic Chemistry17 Qs
- Inorganic Chemistry10 Qs
- Applied Chemistry3 Qs
- Analytical Chemistry3 Qs